confuse

some confuse people what r u doing

Delirium

Delirium is characterized by disorientation, recent memory loss, and a clouding of consciousness. A delirious person has difficulty focusing, sustaining, or shifting attention. These signs arise suddenly, within several hours or days. They fluctuate over the course of a day and often become worse at night, a condition known as sundowning. The duration of these signs is short-rarely more than a month. Delirious patients are often agitated or frightened. They may also experience disrupted sleep-wake cycles, incoherent speech, illusions, and hallucinations.

The signs of delirium usually follow a common progression. Disorientation about time is typically the first sign to appear. if asked, the patient does not know the time of day or the current year or says it is 6:00 A.M. when it is 6:00 P.M. As the delirium worsens, the person's orientation to place becomes disrupted for example, the patient may think she is in her childhood home when she is actually in the  hospital. If undetected, the delirium progresses, and the person's  orientation to familiar people becomes distorted.

Causes of Delirium

There are may causes of delirium. For most patients, an underlying medical, surgical, chemical, or neurological problem causes the delirium. Delirium can be caused by a stroke, congestive heart failure, an infectious disease, a high fever, or HIV infection. Drug intoxication or withdrawal can lead to delirium. Other possible causes include fluid and electrolyte imbalances, illicit drugs, medications, and toxic substances. Delirium is probably the most common psychiatric syndrome found in a general hospital, particularly in older people.

Alzheimer

The most common cause is Alzheimer's disease. Dementia due to Alzheimer's disease is the most
common type of dementia and accounts for 55 to 80 percent of all dementias. Alzheimer's demeforentias typically begin with mild memory loss, but as the disease progresses, the memory loss and disorientation quickly become profound. About two-thirds of alzheimer's patients show psychiatric symptoms, including agitation, irritability, apathy, and dysphoria. As the disease worsens, people may become violent and experience hallucinations and delusions.

The disease usually begins after the age of 65, but there is an early onset type of Alzheimer's disease that tends to progress more quickly than the late-onset type, which develops after age 65. On average, people with this disease die within 8 to 10 years of its diagnosis, usually as a result of physical decline or independent diseases common in old age, such as heart disease.

Panic Disorder

Panic Disorder

People with panic disorder experience sudden bursts of anxiety symptoms, feel out of control, and think they are dying. They may have an overreactive autonomic nervous system, which easily goes into a fight-or-flight response. They also may tend to catastrophize their symptoms. Antidepressant and antianxiety drugs can reduce symptoms of panic, and cognitive-behavioral treatments are effective for panic disorder

Some people with panic disorder have many attacks in a short period of time, such as every day for a week, then go for weeks or months without having another attack, followed by another period in which the attacks come often. Other people have attacks less frequently but more regularly, such as once a week every week of months.

1) Biological Theories

Biological theories of panic disorder have been concerned with poor regulation of neurotransmitters in particular parts of the brain and with the role of genetics

Neurotransmitter

Poor regulation of norepinephrine, serotonin and perhaps GABA and CCK in the locus coeruleus and limbic systems causes panic disorder.

Kindling model

Poor regulation in the locus coeruleus causes panic attacks, stimulates and kindless the limbic system, lowering the threshold for stimulation of diffuse and chronic anxiety

Suffocation false alarm

The brains of people with panic disorder are hypersensitive to carbon dioxide and induce the fight-or-flight response with small increases in carbon dioxide.

Genetic

Disordered genes put some people at risk for panic disorder

2) Psychological Theories

Although many people who develop panic disorder may have biological vulnerability to this disorder, Psychological factors also appear to play a heavy role in determining who will develop the disorder.

Cognitive

People prone to panic attacks

1) Pay very close attention to their bodily sensations

2) Misinterpret these sensations

3)Engage in snowballing, catastrophizing

Vulnerability-Stress Model

The biological and cognitive theories of panic disorder have been integrated to a create a vulnerability-stress mode of this disorder. Many people who develop panic disorder seem to have a biological vulnerability to a hypersensitive fight-or-flight response.

Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia

There are two categories of symptoms. Positive symptoms, all called type I symptoms, are characterized by the presence of unusual perceptions, thoughts, or behaviours. Positive refers to the fact that these symptoms represent very salient experiences. In contrast, Negative  symptoms, or type II symptoms, represent losses or deficits in certain domain. They involve the absence of behaviors, rather than the presence of behaviors.

1) Positive Symptoms

The positive symptoms of schizophrenia include delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thought and speech, and disorganized or catatonic behavior.

Delusions

Delusions are ideas that an individual believes are true but are highly unlikely and often simply impossible. Of course, most people occasionally hold beliefs that are likely to be wrong, such as the belief that the will win the lottery. These kinds of self-deceptions differ from delusions in at least three ways.

Hallucinations

Have you ever had a strange perceptual experience, such as thinking you saw someone when no one was near, thinking you heard a voice talking to you, or feeling as though your body were floating through the air? If so, you are not alone.

Disorganized Thought and Speech

The disorganized thinking of people with schizophrenia is often referred to as a formal thought disorder. One of the most common forms of disorganization in schizophrenia is a tendency to slip from one topic to a seemingly unrelated topic with little coherent transition, often referred to as the loosening of associations, or derailment.

Disorganized or Catatonic Behavior

The disorganized behavior of people with schizophrenia is often what leads others to be afraid of them. People with schizophrenia may display unpredictable and apparently untriggered agitation, suddenly shouting, swearing, or pacing rapidly up and down the street. They may engage in socially disapproved of behavior, such as public masturbation. Many are disheveled and dirty, sometimes wearing few clothes on a cold day or heavy clothes on a very hot day. Short of these more bizarre behaviors, persons with schizophrenia often have trouble organizing their daily routines to ensure that they bathe, dress properly, and eat regularly.

2) Negative Symptoms

The negative symptoms of schizophrenia, or type II symptoms, involve loses or deficits, in certain domains. The negative symptoms of schizophrenia represent the absence of usual emotional and behavioral responses.

Affective Flattening
Affective flattening is a severe reduction, or even the complete absence, of affective responses to the environment. Often, this is also referred to as blunted affect. The person's face may remain immobile most ot the time, no matter what happens, and his or her body language may be unresponsive to what is going on in the environment.

Alogia
Alogia, or poverty of speech, is a reduction in speaking. They person may not initiate speech with others and, when asked direct questions, may give brief, empty replies. The person's lack of speech presumably reflects a lack of thinking, although it may be caused in  part by a lack of motivation to speak.

Avolition
Avolition is an inability to persist at common, goal-directed activities, including those at work, school, and home. The person has great trouble completing tasks and is disorganized and careless, apparently completely unmotived.

Phobia

We will consider three groups of phobias
1) Agoraphobia
2) Specific Phobias
3) Social Phobia

Phobia

Agoraphobia

The term Agoraphobia is from the Greek for "fear of the marketplace." People with Agoraphobia fear crowded, bustling place, such as the marketplace or, in our times, the shopping mall. They also fear enclosed spaces, such as buses, subways, or elevators. Finally, they fear wide open spaces, such as open fields, particularly if they are alone. In general, people with Agoraphobia fear any places where they might have trouble escaping or getting help in an emergency. The emergency that they often fear is a panic attack.

Specific Phobias

The Specific Phobias conform more to popular more conceptions of phobia. Most specific phobias fall into one of four categories, however animal type, natural environment type, situational type, and blood-injection-injury type. When people with these phobias encounter their feared there objects or situations, their anxiety is immediate and intense, and they may even have full panic attacks.

Social Phobia

Social Phobia is not categorized as a specific phobia because, rather than fearing a specific object or situation, people with social phobia fear being judged or embarrassing themselves in front of other people. Social phobia also differs from the specific phobias in that it is more likely to create severe disruption in a person's daily life. Many people get a little nervous when they are speaking in front of a group of people or must joint a group of people already engaged in conversation

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Generalized Anxiety Disorder

Generalized Anxiety Disorder

Psychodynamic

Three kinds of anxiety realistic, neurotic, and moral. Realistic Anxiety occurs when we face a real danger or threat, such as oncoming tornado. Neurotic Anxiety occurs when we are repeatedly prevented from expressing our id impulses. The energy of those impulses is not allowed release, and it causes anxiety. For example, a person who feels he can never act on his sexual urges may experience neurotic anxiety. Moral Anxiety occurs when we have been punished for expressing our id impulses, and we come to associate those impulses with punishment, causing anxiety.

Humanistic and Existential

Humanistic explanation of generalized anxiety suggests that children who do not receive unconditional positive regard from significant others become overly critical of themselves and develop conditions of worth, harsh self standards they feel they must meet in order to be acceptable

Generalized anxiety disorder to existential anxiety, a universal human fear of the limits and responsibilities of one's existence. Existential anxiety arises when we face the finality of death, the fact that we may unintentionally hurt someone, or the prospect that our lives have has no meaning. We can avoid existential anxiety by accepting our limits and striving to make our lives meaningful, or we can try to silence that anxiety by avoiding responsibility or by conforming to others rules.

Cognitive

Generalized Anxiety Disorder suggest that the cognitions of people with Generalized Anxiety Disorder are focused on threat, at both the conscious and nonconscious levels. At the Conscious level, people with generalized Anxiety Disorder have a number of maladaptive assumptions that set them up for anxiety, such as "I must be loved or approved of by everyone,". The Unconscious cognitions of people with Generalized Anxiety Disorder also appear to be focused on detecting possible threats in the environment. Some of the words have special significance for a person with chronic anxiety, such as disease or failure, whereas other words have no special significance.